# Base Data Types
Numeric: int, float, complex
Boolean: bool

# Container Data Types
Text: str
Sequence: list, tuple, range
Mapping: dict
Set: set, frozenset
Binary Sequence: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

# Data Examples
int: 12321, float: 12.342, complex: 2 + 12j
bool: True
str: "Hello Python"
list: ["apple", "banana", "orange"], tuple: ("apple", "banana", "orange"), range: range(20)
dict: {"name" : "Rock", "age" : 18}
set: {"apple", "banana", "orange"}, frozenset: frozenset({"apple", "banana", "orange"})
bytes: b"ABC", bytearray: bytearray(8), memoryview: memoryview(bytes(8))

# Data Range
int: unbounded
float: 2.2250738585072014e-308 to 1.7976931348623157e+308
			

# Containers having method __contains__
str: "Hello Python"
list: ["apple", "banana", "orange"],
tuple: ("apple", "banana", "orange"),
range: range(20)
dict: {"name" : "Rock", "age" : 18}
set: {"apple", "banana", "orange"},
frozenset: frozenset({"apple", "banana", "orange"})
bytes: b"ABC"
bytearray: bytearray(8)

# Immutable: str, tuple, frozenset, bytes
# Access the contained objects
# Iterate over contained objects

# Supports in operator
tempStr = "Hello Python"
print( "llo" in tempStr )
# Output: True

# Test containers
from collections.abc import Container
tempStr = "Hello Python"
print( isinstance(tempStr, Container) )
# Output: True
			

# Keywords are reserved words in Python
# Keywords are case sensitive
# Keywords: if, else, elif, for, while, in, as, is, and, or, not, with, from, break, pass, continue, return
# Keywords: class, finally, try, assert, def, nonlocal, del, yield
# Keywords: import, global, lambda, async, except, await, raise, None, True, False

# Identifier can be used as name of variables, classes, or functions

# Identifier Rules
# Can have a to z, A to Z, 0 to 9, or _ underscore
# Cannot start with a digit
# Cannot use special characters including !, @, #, $, %
# Keywords cannot be used as Identifier
# Can be of any length
# Identifiers are case sensitive

# Identifier Examples
# Correct: alpha, _bravo, alpha12, alpha_bravo, alpha_123, this_is_a_long_name
# Correct: alpha, Alpha, aLpha, and alphA : all are different
# Wrong: 12alpha, @alpha, al!pha, else, while
			

 + : Addition: a + b, a + b + c
 - : Subtraction: a - b, a + b - c
 * : Multiplication: a * b, a * (b + c)
 / : Division: a / b, ( a + b ) / c
 % : Modulus: a % b
 ** : Exponentiation: a ** b
 // : Floor division: a // b
			

 = : Simple: a = b
 += : Increment: a += b ~ a = a + b
 -= : Decrement: a -= b ~ a = a - b
 *= : Multiplication: a *= b ~ a = a * b
 /= : Division: a /= b ~ a = a / b
 %= : Modulus: a %= b ~ a = a % b
 **= : Exponentiation:a **= b ~ a = a ** b
 //= : Floor division: a //= b ~ a = a // b
			

 == : Equal: a == b
 != : Not equal: a != b
 > : Greater than: a > b
 < : Less than: a < b
 >= : Greater than or equal to: a >= b
 <= : Less than or equal to: a <= b
			

 and : x == 25 and y == 35
 or : x == 25 or y == 35
 not : not(x == 25 and y == 35)
			

# Identity Operators - Tests for same objects
 is : x is y
 is not : x is not y

# Membership Operators - Tests for sequence in an object
 in : x in y
 not in : x not in y
			

 & : AND : Copies 1 if both bits are 1, else use 0
 | : OR : Copies 1 if either of the bits is 1, else use 0
 ^ : XOR : Copies 1 if only one of the bits is 1, else use 0
 ~ : NOT : Simply flip the bits
 << : left shift : Shift left and fill by zero on right
 >> : right shift : Shift right and fill by zero on left
			

# Integers
a = int(121)   # 121
b = int(21.21) # 21
c = int("151") # 151
d = int("15f",16) # 351

# Floats
a = float("5.25e5") # 525000.0

# Booleans
a = ''
b = 'abc'
c = 12
d = bool(a) # False
e = bool(b) # True
f = bool(c) # True

# Strings
a = str("hello") # hello
b = str(51) # 51
c = str(25.25)  # 25.25
			

### Input
## Read input as string from console
# Convert the input string accordingly
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"]
choice = input("Enter from 1 to 4:")

choice = int( choice )

if choice < 1 or choice > 4 :
	print( "Wrong choice" )
else :
	print( fruits[choice - 1] )

## Output
Enter from 1 to 4:3
orange

## Read multiple arguments
a, b, c = input( "Enter a, b, and c with space as delimiter:" ).split()
print( f"a: {a}, b: {b}, c: {c}")

## Multiple arguments output
Enter a, b, and c with space as delimiter:1 2 3
a: 1, b: 2, c: 3

### Print

# print literal values
print( "Hello Python !!" )
print( 15 )
print( 25.25 )

# print variables
name = "Ricky"
print( name )

# print expressions
start = 20
end = 50
print( end - start )
			

## Conversion Types
d, i - Signed integer decimal, i is not supported by format method
o - Unsigned octal, u - Unsigned decimal
x, X - Unsigned hexadecimal, leading 0x or 0X
e, E - Floating point exponential format
f, F - Floating point decimal format
c - Single character
r - String (converts python object using repr())
s - String (converts python object using  str())

name = "Joe"
age = 25
weight = 25.2456

# String and Number
print( f"{name}, {age}" ) # Joe, 25
print( "%(name)s, %(age)d" % {'name': name, "age": age} ) # Joe, 25
print( '{0:s}, {1:d}' . format( name, age ) ) # Joe, 25

# Fixed digit numbers
print( f"{name}, {age:03d}" ) # Joe, 025
print( "%(name)s, %(age)03d" % {'name': name, "age": age} ) # Joe, 025
print( '{0:s}, {1:03d}' . format( name, age ) ) # Joe, 025

# Floating point
print( f"{name}, {weight:3.2f}" ) # Joe, 25.25
print( "%(name)s, %(weight)3.2f" % {'name': name, "weight": weight} ) # Joe, 25.25
print( '{0:s}, {1:3.2f}' . format( name, weight ) ) # Joe, 25.25
			

# string
# ordered, indexed, unchangeable (immutable), allows duplicates
hello = "Hello Python !!"
print( hello[0] ) # H
print( hello[4] ) # 0

print( hello[1,4] ) # syntax error, range not allowed
hello[0] = "K" # syntax error, immutable, item assignment not allowed

# list
# ordered, indexed, changeable (mutable), allows duplicates
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"]
print( fruits[0] ) # apple
print( fruits[2] ) # orange
print( fruits[1:3] ) # ['banana', 'orange']
print( fruits[:2] ) # ['apple', 'banana']
print( fruits[-3:-1] ) # ['banana', 'orange']
print( fruits[-3:] ) # ['banana', 'orange', 'grapes']

fruits[0] = "banana"
print( fruits[0] ) # banana
print( fruits[1] ) # banana

# tuple
# ordered, indexed, unchangeable (immutable), allows duplicates
vehicles = ("car", "bus", "truck")
print( vehicles[0] ) # car
print( vehicles[1] ) # bus

vehicles[0] = "bicycle" # syntax error, immutable, item assignment not allowed

# range
# generates an immutable sequence of numbers over time
a = range(5)
b = range(0,5)
c = range(0,10,2)

print( a[2] ) # 2
print( c[2] ) # 4
			

# bytes
# ordered, indexed, unchangeable (immutable), allows duplicates
hello1 = b"Hello Python !!"
hello2 = bytes('Hello Python !!', 'utf8')
print( hello1[0] ) # 72
print( hello2[4] ) # 111
print( hello1 ) # b'Hello Python !!'
print( hello1.decode() ) # Hello Python !!

print( hello[1,4] ) # syntax error, range not allowed
hello[0] = "K" # syntax error, immutable, item assignment not allowed

# bytearray
hello1 = bytearray( b"Hello Python !!" )
hello2 = bytearray( "Hello Python !!", "utf8" )
hello3 = bytearray( [72, 101, 108, 108, 111] )
print( hello1 ) # bytearray(b'Hello Python !!')
print( hello2 ) # bytearray(b'Hello Python !!')
print( hello3 ) # bytearray(b'Hello')
print( hello3.decode() ) # Hello
			

## list comprehension
# [ expression for item in list if conditional ]
# expression can be a valid expression including function call
# using if is optional

## Example 1 - Iterate the list and conditionally select item
fruits = ['watermelon', 'kiwi', 'litchi', 'guava', 'grapes', 'banana', 'apple']

filtered = [ fruit for fruit in fruits if fruit[0] == 'g' ]

print( filtered ) # ['guava', 'grapes']

## Example 2 - Call function
def table(num, x) :
    return num * x

num = 2
tableOfNum = [ table(num, x) for x in range(11) if x > 0 ]

print( tableOfNum ) # [2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20]

## Example 3
num = 2
tableOfNum = [ num * x for x in range(11) if x > 0 ]

print( tableOfNum ) # [2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20]
			

# dict
# unordered, indexed, changeable (mutable), allows duplicates
person = { "name": "Joe", "age": 24 }
print( person["name"] ) # Joe
print( person["age"] ) # 24
print( person.get("name") ) # Joe
print( person ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 24}

person["name"] = "Jack"
print( person["name"] ) # Jack

# convert list of list or tuple to dict
person1 = dict( [ [ "name", "Joe" ], [ "age", 24 ] ] )
person2 = dict( [ ( "name", "Joe" ), ( "age", 24 ) ] )
print( person1 ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 24}
print( person2 ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 24}

# set
# unordered, unindexed, changeable (mutable), no duplicates
fruits = {"apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"}
print( fruits ) # {'apple', 'grapes', 'orange', 'banana'}
print( fruits ) # {'apple', 'grapes', 'banana', 'orange'}

a = fruits[0] # syntax error, unsubscriptable

# convert list or tuple to set
fruits1 = set( ["apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"] )
fruits2 = set( ("apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes") )

print(fruits1) # {'apple', 'orange', 'grapes', 'banana'}
print(fruits2) # {'apple', 'orange', 'grapes', 'banana'}

# frozenset
# unordered, unindexed, unchangeable (immutable), no duplicates
			

# Statement Blocks - if, else and elif
# Statement blocks works using indentations
# Statement block executed only if given condition is true

# if
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"]

if "banana" in fruits :
	print( "Found Banana" )

# else
if "banana" in fruits :
	print( "Found Banana" )
else :
	print( "Banana is missing" )

# elif
name = "Joe"

if name == "Rock" :
	print( "Rock is performing now" )
elif name == "Joe" :
	print( "Joe is performing now" )
else :
	print( "Stage is free" )
			

# Iterative Loop - for
# Statement blocks works using indentations
# Statement block executed for each item of container

# Iterate list
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"]

# Standard
for fruit in fruits :
    print( fruit )

# Iterate with index using range
for i in range(len(fruits)):
    print( "Fruit {}: {}" . format( i + 1, fruits[i] ) )

# Iterate with index using enumerate
for num, name in enumerate(fruits, start=1):
    print( "Fruit {}: {}" . format( num, name ) )

# Iterate set
fruits = {"apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"}

for fruit in fruits :
    print( fruit )

# Iterate dict
person = { "name": "Joe", "age": 24 }

for key in person:
    print( "Person {}: {}" . format( key, person[key] ) )
			

# Declaration & Definition
# def functionName(argument1, argument2, argument3)
# Declared using the def keyword
# Function name must be a valid identifier
# Function can have 0 to n arguments
# Function arguments can be literal values, variables (valid identifiers), and expressions
# Function is a block of code which runs when it is called
# Function block can have multiple statements
# Function variables exists within the function blocks during the call

def sum(a, b) :
	return a + b

def subtract(a, b) :
	return a - b

def getPerson(name, age) :
	person = { "name": name, "age": age }
	return person

# Call
# Functions can be called by passing the arguments according to the declaration

a = 20
b = 50
c = sum(a, b)
d = sum(b, 50)
e = subtract(b, a)
p = getPerson("Joe", 25)

print( "Sum - {} plus {}: {}" . format( a, b, c ) ) # Sum - 20 plus 50: 70
print( "Sum - {} plus 50: {}" . format( b, d ) ) # Sum - 50 plus 50: 100
print( "Subtraction - {} minus {}: {}" . format( b, a, e ) ) # Subtraction - 50 minus 20: 30
print( "Person - {}" . format( p ) ) # Person - {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 75}
			

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"]

# append, extend, insert, and remove
fruits.append( "guava" ) # Appends the item at the end
print( fruits ) # ['apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'grapes', 'guava']
fruits.append( "guava" ) # Appends the item at the end
print( fruits ) # ['apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'grapes', 'guava', 'guava']
fruits.extend( [ "litchi", "watermelon" ] ) # Adds multiple items to the set
print( fruits ) # ['apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'grapes', 'guava', 'guava', 'litchi', 'watermelon']
fruits.insert( 3, "guava" ) # Adds the item at the given index
print( fruits ) # ['apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'guava', 'grapes', 'guava', 'guava', 'litchi', 'watermelon']
fruits.remove( "guava" ) # Removes first matching item
print( fruits ) # ['apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'grapes', 'guava', 'guava', 'litchi', 'watermelon']

# pop, copy, and clear
poppedItem = fruits.pop( 4 ) # Removes the item at the given index
print( poppedItem ) # guava
print( fruits ) # ['apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'grapes', 'guava', 'litchi', 'watermelon']
fruitsCopy = fruits.copy() # Shallow copy
print( fruitsCopy ) # ['apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'grapes', 'guava', 'litchi', 'watermelon']
fruitsCopy.clear()
print( fruitsCopy ) # []

# sort and reverse
fruits.sort()
print( fruits ) # ['apple', 'banana', 'grapes', 'guava', 'litchi', 'orange', 'watermelon']
fruits.reverse()
print( fruits ) # ['watermelon', 'orange', 'litchi', 'guava', 'grapes', 'banana', 'apple']

# read, update, delete
print( fruits[1] ) # orange
fruits[ 1 ] = "kiwi"
print( fruits ) # ['watermelon', 'kiwi', 'litchi', 'guava', 'grapes', 'banana', 'apple']
del fruits[ 1 ]
print( fruits ) # ['watermelon', 'litchi', 'guava', 'grapes', 'banana', 'apple']
			

person = { "name": "Joe", "age": 24, "dob": "25-11-2000", "profession": "Software Developer" }

# keys, values, and items
# returns iterable for iterations
print( person.keys() ) # dict_keys(['name', 'age', 'dob', 'profession'])
print( person.values() ) # dict_values(['Joe', 24, '25-11-2000', 'Software Developer'])
print( person.items() ) # dict_items([('name', 'Joe'), ('age', 24), ('dob', '25-11-2000'), ('profession', 'Software Developer')])

# pop, popitem, copy, and clear
poppedItem = person.pop( "dob" ) # Removes the item having given key
print( poppedItem ) # 25-11-2000
print( person ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 24, 'profession': 'Software Developer'}
poppedItem = person.popitem() # Removes the item inserted last
print( poppedItem ) # ('profession', 'Software Developer')
print( person ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 24}
personCopy = person.copy() # Shallow copy
print( personCopy ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 24}

# add, read, get, and update
person[ "profession" ] = "Teacher"
print( person ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 24, 'profession': 'Teacher'}
person[ "profession" ] = "Musician"
print( person ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'age': 24, 'profession': 'Musician'}
print( person[ "age" ] ) # 24
print( person.get( "age" ) ) # 24
person.update( { "age": 28 } )
print( person.get( "age" ) ) # 28

# delete
del person[ "age" ]
print( person ) # {'name': 'Joe', 'profession': 'Musician'}
			

fruits = {"apple", "banana", "orange", "grapes"}

# add, update, remove, and discard
fruits.add( "guava" ) # Adds the item to the set if not exist
print( fruits ) # {'apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'guava', 'grapes'}
fruits.add( "guava" ) # Adds the item to the set if not exist
print( fruits ) # {'apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'guava', 'grapes'}
fruits.update( [ "litchi", "watermelon" ] ) # Adds multiple items to the set
print( fruits ) # {'apple', 'banana', 'litchi', 'orange', 'watermelon', 'guava', 'grapes'}
fruits.remove( "litchi" ) # Find and remove the item, throws error if not found
print( fruits ) # {'apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'watermelon', 'guava', 'grapes'}
fruits.discard( "litchi" ) # Find and remove the item, does not throw any error
print( fruits ) # {'apple', 'banana', 'orange', 'watermelon', 'guava', 'grapes'}

# pop, copy, and clear
poppedItem = fruits.pop() # Removes an arbitrary item
print( poppedItem ) # apple
print( fruits ) # {'banana', 'orange', 'watermelon', 'guava', 'grapes'}
fruitsCopy = fruits.copy() # Shallow copy
print( fruitsCopy ) # {'banana', 'guava', 'grapes', 'orange', 'watermelon'}
fruitsCopy.clear()
print( fruitsCopy ) # set()
			

# Lambda: Anonymous function
# Arguments: Accepts n arguments
# Expressions: Only one expression is allowed
# Syntax: lambda arguments : expression

addTo100 = lambda a : a + 100
print( addTo100( 50 ) ) # 150

multiplyBy2 = lambda a : a * 2
print( multiplyBy2( 25 ) ) # 50
			

# Python is an object oriented programming language
# Almost everything in Python is an object
# Almost everything has attributes and methods
# All functions have a built-in attribute __doc__
# Some objects have neither attributes nor methods
# Some objects are final

class Person:
	def __init__(self, name, age, profession) :
		self.name = name
		self.age = age
		self.profession = profession

	def printInfo(self) :
		print( "Person Name: {} Age: {} Profession: {}" . format( self.name, self.age, self.profession ) )

joe = Person("Joe", 35, "Software Engineer")

joe.printInfo() # Person Name: Joe Age: 35 Profession: Software Engineer
			

# Module: A file having Python code including statements and definitions is called as Module.
# A module can define variables, functions, and classes.
# A module can also include code which can be executed.
# The file name must be module name appended by .py extension.
# Module name can be accessed within it using the global __name__.

# Package: A Python package is a collection of Python modules.
# Package is a directory having modules.
# Regular packages must have an additional __init__.py file, to distinguish it from a directory.
# Namespace packages since Python 3.3 do not need __init__.py file

## Module - models.py
class Person:
	def __init__(self, name, age, profession):
		self.name = name
		self.age = age
		self.profession = profession

	def printInfo(self) :
		print( "Person Name: {} Age: {} Profession: {}" . format( self.name, self.age, self.profession ) )

## Module - main.py
# Search for models.py in current directory, main.py directory
# Search for models.py in the list of directories in the PYTHONPATH environment variable
import models # Use import mylib.models if models module is available in mylib directory

joe = models.Person("Joe", 35, "Software Engineer")

joe.printInfo() # Person Name: Joe Age: 35 Profession: Software Engineer

## Module - main.py
from models import Person

joe = Person("Joe", 35, "Software Engineer")

joe.printInfo() # Person Name: Joe Age: 35 Profession: Software Engineer

## Execute main module on console
python main.py

## List directories where Python searches for the Module
import sys

print(sys.path)

## Sample Directory Structure
├── nspkg1
│   └── regpkg1
│       ├── __init__.py
│       └── vehicle.py
├── nspkg2
│   └── nspkg2sub1
│       └── person.py
├── main.py

## Imports in main.py
import nspkg1.regpkg1.vehicle
import nspkg2.nspkg2sub1.person
			

# Errors
# Program stops working on error
# Python raises exceptions when it encounter error
# Syntax or parsing errors are the most common for beginners

# Exceptions
# No syntax errors found, program starts execution
# Errors detected during execution are called exceptions
# Use try: except: finally: to catch and handle the exceptions
# Use try: except: finally: to avoid program termination on exceptions
# Use try: except: else: instead of try: except: finally: for alternate flows
# Multiple except can be use to catch the exceptions

## Program
a = 10 * (1/0)

## Throws division by zero exception and terminate the program
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
    a = 10 * (1/0)
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

## Updated Program - Valid - Try: Except: Finally
b = 10
try:
    a = 10 * (1/b)
    print( "a = {}" .format( a ) )
except:
    print( "Caught divide by zero - while getting a" )
    print( "Execute on error - b must be non-zero value" )
finally:
    print( "Execute Always - normal and exceptional flow" )

## Output
a = 1.0
Execute Always - normal and exceptional flow

## Updated Program - Error - Try: Except: Finally
b = 0
try:
    a = 10 * (1/b)
    print( "a = {}" .format( a ) )
except:
    print( "Caught divide by zero - while getting a" )
    print( "Execute on error - b must be non-zero value" )
else:
    print( "Alternate to exceptional flow" )

## Output
Caught divide by zero - while getting a
Execute on error - b must be non-zero value
Execute Always - normal and exceptional flow
			

# math.ceil( num ) - Smallest integer greater than or equal to num
# math.floor( num ) - Largest integer less than or equal to num
# math.fabs( num ) - Absolute of num
# math.factorial( num ) - Integer value of num factorial
# math.pow( num, power ) - num raised to the power
# math.sqrt( num ) - Square root of num
# math.isqrt( num ) - Integer square root of the nonnegative integer num
# math.asin( num ) - Arc sine of num radians
# math.acos( num ) - Arc cosine of num radians
# math.atan( num ) - Arc tangent of num radians
# math.sin( num ) - Sine of num radians
# math.cos( num ) - Cosine of num radians
# math.tan( num ) - Tangent of num radians
# math.dist( num1, num2 ) - Euclidean distance between two points num1 and num2
# math.degrees( num ) - Angle num from radians to degrees
# math.radians( num ) - Degree num from degrees to radians
# math.exp(x) - e raised to the power x, e = 2.718281
# math.expm1(x) - e raised to the power x minus 1, e = 2.718281
# math.log( num[, base] ) - One argument -> natural logarithm of x (to base e), Two arguments -> logarithm of x to the given base
# math.log2( num ) - base-2 logarithm of num

## Examples
import math

num = 12.25

print( math.ceil( num ) ) # 13
print( math.floor( num ) ) # 12
			

# Function: open
# Arguments: 1st -> File path with name, 2nd -> Mode, 3rd -> Encoding
# Modes: r -> read only, w -> write only, a -> append only, r+ -> read/write
# Optionally append t or b to the mode to specify among text or binary

## Example - Open
f = open( "test.txt" ) # same as open( "test.txt", "rt" )

## Example - Write
# Open the file test.txt in write mode
file = open( "test.txt", "w", encoding="utf8" )

file.write( "Hello Python !!\n" )
file.writelines( [ "Line 1\n", "Line 2\n", "Line 3\n" ] )
file.close()

## Example - With - Read all lines
with open( "test.txt", "r" ) as file: # Use file to refer to the file object

    file = open( "test.txt", "r" )

    text = file.read( 15 ) # Read first 15 characters

    print( text )

    file.seek( 0 )

    for line in file:
        print ( line.rstrip() )

## Example - try: except: finally: - Read all lines
try:
    file = open( "test.txt", "r" )

    text = file.read( 15 ) # Read first 15 characters

    print( text )

    file.seek( 0 )

    for line in file:
        print ( line.rstrip() )
except:
	print( "Failed to open the file" )
finally:
	file.close()

## Output
Hello Python !!
Hello Python !!
Line 1
Line 2
Line 3